Carbon emissions from human activity are causing ocean warming, acidification, and sea level rise (IPCC 2022). Climate-induced declines in ocean health and services are predicted to cost the global economy up to $428 billion per year by 2050 and $1.98 trillion by 2100 (IPCC 2022). Strengthening the nexus between the ocean and climate action is critical to identifying and implementing effective solutions.

OOC commitments include actions to address all major ocean-climate impacts described by the IPCC (2022) and propose a wide range of solutions (Table 2). Scientific research is a clear crosscutting theme, referenced in 188 commitments. Mirroring the general framing of action by the wider climate community, 199 ocean-climate commitments directly reference adaptation, mitigation, or resilience outcomes.

OOCs have mobilized 123 commitments related to energy transitions, including 34 that refer to investment in wind energy. This includes dedicated climate finance ($6.1 billion pledged), maritime decarbonization investment, ocean monitoring systems, and carbon capture and storage approaches. OOC commitments support several global climate frameworks including the Paris Agreement and SDG 13. An estimated 66 commitments reference ocean acidification, equivalent to $885 million in pledged funds. This includes contributions to initiatives such as the International Alliance to Combat Ocean Acidification, Global Ocean Acidification Observing Network, and Ocean Acidification International Coordination Centre, alongside various national policies and action plans.

Areas for greater attention include ocean-climate action in the Indian, Arctic, and Southern ocean basins. This is particularly relevant for the polar regions experiencing high rates of warming and sea ice loss (IPCC 2022). Continued scaling of renewable energy interventions, particularly by private sector organizations beyond Europe, and commitments to phase out offshore fossil fuel extraction are needed (Hoegh-Guldberg et al. 2023). Continued commitments to support research and operationalize innovative technologies will be required to realize goals of the Paris Agreement (WEF 2024). Commitments that address adaptation to extreme coastal events, including marine heatwaves and sea level rise, particularly for low-lying coastal communities and SIDS, could also benefit from greater attention.

The ocean-climate analysis is impacted by extensive overlap with the sustainable blue economy area, both of which share commitments referring to decarbonizing shipping and maritime industries and investments in renewable energy (50 blue economy commitments have a secondary climate focus).

Marine pollution, including plastic pollution, marine debris, eutrophication, and chemical pollution, harms ocean biodiversity and human health and livelihoods. Plastic pollution comprises the largest proportion of marine waste (UNEP 2021). Under a business-as-usual model, the quantity of plastic litter entering the marine environment is expected to triple to 23–37 million tons by 2040 (UNEP 2021).

Addressing plastic pollution has been a major thematic focus, directly mentioned in 309 commitments. This includes 73 commitments referencing circular economy approaches and 67 referencing single-use plastics. National plastic pollution action plans, bans, or restrictions on certain items have been announced by over 30 countries. This aligns with the high impact and visibility of plastic pollution (UNEP 2021). Once negotiations conclude on the international, legally binding instrument on plastic pollution, actions supporting implementation of the agreement will be a prime area for mobilizing OOC commitments.

Other pollution issues, such as abandoned fishing gear (referenced in 45 commitments) and chemical pollution, hazardous waste, and eutrophication (referenced in 51 commitments, of which 26 are related to oil spills), have received comparatively less attention. Other gaps include marine pollution programs targeting informal sector waste management workers and local communities (referenced in 21 commitments).

Marine pollution has been the most active area for private sector organizations, which have made 75 commitments. Considering their integral role in plastic production, use, and disposal, increasing ambition and engagement with these stakeholders through future conferences is an area of opportunity.

The announcement of new or expanded MPAs has been a key focal point for OOCs. Globally, 8.4 percent of the ocean area is protected in over 18,000 MPAs (UNEP-WCMC and IUCN 2024) though only 3 percent is classified as fully or highly protected (MPAtlas 2025). Studies report that up to 72 percent of assessed threatened marine species are known to occur within MPAs, highlighting their significant biodiversity benefits (UNESCO-IOC et al. 2024). Effectively managed and enforced MPA networks can increase food security for coastal communities, promote greater carbon sequestration, and support coastal protection (Sala et al. 2021). For a detailed and independent assessment of the OOC MPA commitments, see Sullivan-Stack et al. (2025).

Governmental organizations are responsible for most commitments. MPA actions have been concentrated in the Atlantic (178 commitments) and Pacific ocean basins (147 commitments). Approximately 111 commitments reference MPA enforcement and monitoring, while 62 reference expanding MPAs. The conservation of biodiverse coral and reef ecosystems emerged as a particular focus, referenced in 111 commitments.

Due to the thematic framing of the OOC, the MPA pillar has become a catch-all for conservation commitments. This includes work related to ecosystem restoration, local development projects for coastal communities, funding for marine conservation NGOs, research programs, and more.

In light of the upcoming 30x30 target deadline and ongoing campaign to promote ratification of the BBNJ Agreement, a continued focus on commitments to support these targets will be key. Regional MPA gaps include the Indian ocean basin, polar ocean regions, and high seas. Achieving positive MPA outcomes depends on the MPAs’ levels of protection and other enabling factors (Grorud-Colvert et al. 2021); limited financial resources are widely recognized as a barrier to effective MPAs (Gill et al. 2017). Greater investment in effective MPA management is therefore a key area of opportunity for future OOC commitments, particularly for enforcement and monitoring and local participatory approaches.

The sustainable blue economy creates employment and prosperity while preserving ecosystem health. It encompasses fishing, tourism, shipping, transport, energy, marine biotechnology, and more. The investment case for the ocean is clear with estimated 5:1 returns from ocean investments, particularly across offshore wind production, decarbonization of international shipping, and aquaculture and fisheries (Konar and Ding 2020).

Sustainable blue economy actions have been taken in all ocean basins, though most have been implemented as multi-basin initiatives (198) and actions in the Atlantic (160). The high prevalence of blue economy commitments made by stakeholders in the European and North American regions (72 percent) is consistent with previous studies (Voyer et al. 2021).

Commitments have targeted a broad range of marine industries (Table 5). Investment in maritime transport, including shipping and port infrastructure and operations, is a key theme, referenced in 129 commitments. Decarbonizing and green shipping are referenced in 51 commitments, including 26 related to the Declaration on Zero Emission Shipping and green shipping corridors. Investment in tourism is referenced in 61 commitments, equivalent to $6 billion in pledged funds. Deep-sea mining is the subject of 16 commitments, including regulatory actions and research for mining activity as well as conservation campaigns to prevent it. While most blue economy commitments are related to large-scale ocean finance and projects, 46 reference entrepreneurship support such as start-up incubators and training programs. Marine spatial planning and blue economy policy frameworks have played a greater role in recent years, referenced in 32 commitments.

Areas for greater and continued attention include emerging technologies in maritime industries such as artificial intelligence, climate adaptation or retrofitting of ports and maritime infrastructure to enhance resilience, and continued investment in green shipping and renewable energy (considering projected global increases in trade volume and electricity demand). Research related to deep-sea mining and marine genetic resources stand out as other areas for greater consideration, alongside ambitious commitments to support spatial planning such as the development of Sustainable Ocean Plans (Ocean Panel 2021).

Sustainable fishery management is critical to achieving SDGs 2,12, and 14 and for improving global food security. Over 500 million people rely on small-scale fisheries for their livelihoods, including 53 million involved in subsistence fishing, 45 percent of whom are women (FAO 2024). Threatening this productivity, IUU fishing activities are estimated to cost between $26 and $50 billion per year (Sumaila et al. 2020). To secure the benefits of a resilient ocean, it is essential to implement sustainable fisheries policies.

Action to address IUU fishing is a clear theme, referenced in 189 OOC commitments and accounting for $2.7 billion in pledged funds. Of these, monitoring and enforcement is referenced in 102 commitments, including the launch of major global programs such as Global Fishing Watch. Thirty-six commitments address the Agreement on Port State Measures ratification, implementation, or training, a key issue also highlighted by Huse et al. (2021) and for which there was a major push at the 2016 and 2017 Our Ocean Conferences. Aquaculture development is referenced in 94 commitments, equivalent to $3.5 billion, while small-scale and artisanal fisheries are referenced in 48 commitments.

Fishery-related opportunities for future commitments include continued investment in aquaculture (now the largest component of global aquatic food production) and actions addressing other stages of the fishery value chain, particularly blue food processing, loss, and waste. Commitments related to small-scale fisheries management, including approaches that acknowledge traditional and Indigenous knowledge, are a notable gap. Policy opportunities include mobilizing ratification of the World Trade Organization (WTO) Agreement on Fisheries Subsidies, as well as strengthening IUU monitoring and enforcement, especially for any new high seas MPAs. Finally, strengthening climate-fishery linkages and access to climate finance is a further area of opportunity.

Maritime security challenges are found at the intersection of the marine environment, economic development, human security, and national security interests (Bueger 2015). Key challenges include the illegal trafficking of goods, people, and wildlife; piracy and maritime terror and cyberattacks; IUU fishing; and strengthening international cooperation.

Maritime security actions have been geographically concentrated in the Pacific ocean basin (81 commitments) and multiple basins (77 commitments). Japan’s government has played an outsize role in mobilizing 51 maritime security commitments (24 percent of the total). Capacity-building, partnerships, and training initiatives are a common theme, referenced in 157 commitments, particularly collaboration among coast guard agencies (48 commitments). Illegal wildlife, goods, and human trafficking are referenced in 37 commitments, and human rights and labor offenses are the focus of 23 commitments.

Maritime security represents an opportunity for growth for the OOC. OOC commitments directly address 9 of the 10 maritime security matrix issues highlighted by Bueger (2015), with the exception of interstate disputes (Table 7). The following emerging maritime security issues would benefit from more attention at future OOCs: maritime cybersecurity; subsea infrastructure; formalizing regional maritime security governance; “greening” defense industries; and tackling “white collar” maritime crime such as corruption, tax evasion, and money laundering (Witbooi et al. 2020; Bueger et al. 2024).

As previously discussed, maritime security commitments overlap extensively with the sustainable fisheries action area in relation to IUU fishing.